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The old regime of distributing work in society involved three mechanisms: nepotism, patronage, and purchase. Nepotism is the practice of senior clerics giving jobs to their relatives, often disguised as nephews. This practice originated in the fourteenth or fifteenth century and was seen as morally wrong. However, many societies viewed securing positions for one’s children and relatives as a sign of decency. Tribal societies and the Roman Republic both operated on the principles of marriage, reproduction, and inheritance. Family businesses, from small companies to multinational banks, also thrived on nepotism.

Patronage is the act of leaders surrounding themselves with people they can trust and rewarding them with desirable positions. This practice still exists today, with presidents and prime ministers appointing trusted individuals to key roles. However, modern examples of patronage are typically smaller in scale compared to pre-modern times. In pre-modern societies, patronage was pervasive and inescapable, with monarchs and courtiers constantly vying for positions of power and influence.

The whole system of nepotism and patronage relied on the notion of property, where positions of power were owned by those in authority. This system allowed for the exchange of positions as favors, and holders of these positions had the freedom to sell them or pass them down to family members. Louis XIV’s Court in France was a prime example of a jobs market, with courtiers vying for favor and reaping substantial rewards if they were in the right place at the right time.

The selling of offices, known as purchase, was also prevalent in pre-modern societies. This provided immediate cash for the government while offering long-term rewards for the buyers, such as income streams and noble privileges. France’s Ancien Régime had about 50,000 venal offices, representing a capital value of approximately one billion livres. Britain had a more complex system of patronage and purchase, with the Crown controlling offices and Parliament running a parallel system. The buying and selling of commissions in the army was also common, allowing men to purchase ranks and enjoy the spoils of war.

While these systems of nepotism, patronage, and purchase are often seen as corruption, they served specific purposes in pre-modern societies. Patronage provided a mechanism for identifying talent and ensuring loyalty, while purchase solved problems of information and incentives. Many individuals in history owed their careers to patrons who recognized their talent and supported them. However, these systems were crude, with individuals often neglecting their obligations to their patrons and seeking maximum benefits for themselves.

Eventually, these systems of distributing work lost their usefulness as advances in communication and administration allowed governments to monitor their agents more effectively. The rise of the idea of meritocracy, where positions are awarded based on merit rather than favoritism, marked the end of the old regime. Critics of the old regime began to emphasize the downsides of nepotism, patronage, and purchase, leading to calls for reform.

In the next part of the work, the author explores the origins of the meritocratic idea in Plato’s Republic, China’s examination state, the Jewish diaspora, and medieval and Early Modern sponsored mobility. The author will then examine how the idea of meritocracy gained traction in continental Europe, Great Britain, and the United States.

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